https://www.researchgate.net/publication/374505152_From_Sasanian_Adurbadagan_to_Modern_Azerbaijan_Historical_Background_and_Developments
Abstract: The author discusses the historical background of the origin
of modern Azerbaijan divided by the Araz
River into southern or Iranian and northern or the independent Republic of
Azerbaijan. The author analyzes the application of the Sasanian name Adurbadagan
to both sides of modern Azerbaijan. He believes that the name Azerbaijan
originates from the Avestan words Atash or Atar
or Azar which means fire.
As a historical and political term, Azerbaijan roots deep to Achaemenids’
Aturpatakan (Atropatena) evolving into the Sasanian Adurbadagan - a Zoroastrian
center of the empire. Since late Antiquity, Adurbadagan’s military and
administrative functions were extended and applied by the Sasanids to all lands
in the north from the Aras River, up to Darband fortress in Arran (Albania) in
Caucasia. The author argues, that since late Antiquity, Adurbadagan and Arran became interchangeable
names in the northern bank of the Araz river. In the Islamic period,
particularly after the Seljuk Turks conquest of Iran, Adurbadagan evolved into the
Turkified form of Azarbadajan or Azerbaijan, cementing the modern Azerbaijani
Turks’ identity in the south and north sides of the entire Azerbaijan divided
by the Araxes.
Keywords: Iran, Sasanian,
Adurbadagan, Arran, Caucasus Albania, Azerbaijan
Introduction
A couple hypotheses exist regarding the origins of the name
Azerbaijan. According to the classic tradition, the name comes from the time of
Alexander of Macedon’s conquest of the Achaemenid Empire. In particular, it
presumably originates from General Aturpat - a commander of the Persian King
Darius III’s army’s right wing in the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC (Chaumont, 1987).
Nobleman Aturpat (in Pahlavi) or Atropates (in
Greek) was King Darius III’s general and satrap of Media. He, as the satrap of Media, commanded Median,
Arranian (Greek: Albanian), Sacasenian troops in the Battle of
Gaugamela. Army. During the battle, Atropates’ units pushed
Alexander’s army to stop the advance and implemented defensive measures. Only Alexander’s personal intervention with
fresh troops allowed the Macedonians to stop their retreat and concentrate on a
victorious advance in the center, facing troops under the direct command of Darius
III. It was a unique moment in the battle. The Macedonian right wing had begun
to retreat and, if King Darius III realized and utilized it, the battle’s
outcome would have been completely different. However, as is well-known, Darius
III’s poor commanding and leadership skills resulted in the catastrophic defeat
of the Achaemenids Army (Shifman, 1988).
_and_Alexandre_The_Great2.png) |
Figure 1. Aturpat (Greek: Atropates) meets Alexander of Macedon, painting,
National Museum of History, Baku, Azerbaijan |
One month after Darius III’s death in June 330
B.C., Atropates surrendered to Alexander. Later, in a personal meeting,
Alexander mentioned Atropates’ military
skills and esteemed him so highly that Atropates’ daughter was married to
Perdiccas - a close ally to Alexander and commander of the Macedonian cavalry.
The marriage took place at the famous mass wedding in Susa in February 324 BC.
Moreover, Atropates also offered 100 Amazons, as Greeks called beautiful
female-archers from Media and Albania, for Alexander’s military elite massive
wedding in Susa (Mayor, 2017).
In 324 B.C. Atropates pacified unrest against
the Greeks, and Alexander decided to keep Atropates as a King of the land which
later became the independent Kingdom of Atropatena (in Greek) or Aturpatakan
(in Parthian or Arsakid Pahlavi). Thus, as we believe, Aturpat (Atropates)
occupies a significant place in the history of Azerbaijan. His name, possibly,
is the key to understanding the origin of the name Azerbaijan - a land of fire.
Indeed, Aturpat, a nobleman and general, was a
follower of Zarathustra (Zoroaster). The name Aturpat comes from Avesta’s word
“Atare-pata”. The word “Atur” is
derived from the Avestan “Atar” or “Atash” or “Azar” that means fire. “Pat”
may be derived from the Avestan “payu”
meaning “guardian” or “protector”. The transcription of name
Aturpat from Pahlavi (Middle Persian) could be “protected by fire” (Khalifa-Zadeh, 2017).
Aturpatakan
(Atropatena)
After Alexander’s death in June 323 B.C.,
Atropates secured his rule in a part of Media, known as Atropatena or Lesser
Media, which was mostly settled by the Medes, a founding Iranian tribe of the
Median Empire, preceding the Achaemenids.
Atropatena is Aturpatan in Old Persian. During
the subsequent Parthian era, the Old Persian name Aturpatan evolved to the Middle
Persian Aturpatakan. In Old and Middle Persian (Pahlavi), “Atur”, as mentioned earlier, means fire. The Encyclopedia Iranica
describes Aturpatakan as “a place where the holy fire is protected”.
 |
| Figure 2. Aturpatakan (Greek: Atropatena) |
Indeed, Aturpatakan was the only place in
Ancient Iran where Zoroastrianism was never challenged by other religions,
particularly the Greek pantheon. Moreover, it is highly likely that Aturpatakan
was the place where the prophet Zarathustra was born and the Holy Avesta was
kept in the sacred fire Adur Gushnasp temple (now Takht-e Soleyman, Iranian
Azerbaijan) (Ghodrat-Dizaji, 2007) .
Under the Seleucids, Atropates, as King of
Atropatena, tried to minimize the impact of the Hellenistic religion on
Zoroastrianism. He enjoyed full support from the Zoroastrian clergy—the Magi and
priests. The Atropatena’s capital was Ganzak, a cultural and logistical hub. It
was a fortress and stronghold of Zoroastrianism. The Encyclopedia Iranica
mentions: “It was presumably the capital of Atropates and his descendants,
under whom, it seems, the chief Median sacred fire Adur Gushnasp was
established on a hill nearby. Later developments show that the fire became
closely associated with both Ganzak and Lake Urmia.” (Boyce, 2012).
Aturpatakan or Atropatena was an independent
or semi-independent (vassal of Arsakid Parthia) kingdom until 3 CE.
Atropatena and Parthia considered Rome a great threat and allied themselves in
a long-lasting war with the Romans. Later, Atropatena was absorbed by the Sasanian
Empire and Aturpatakan evolved into Adurbadagan (in Pahlavi).
Adurbadagan/Adarbadagan
As a result of the transition from Old Persian to Middle
Persian (Pahlavi), the word “Atur” or “Atar” evolved to “Adur” or “Adar”, and
so Aturpatakan has been named Adurbadagan or Adarbadagan by the Sasanians.
In the Seleucid and Parthian eras, Aturpatakan
(Adurbadagan) played a central role as a stronghold against the Greek and Roman
pantheons, respectively, to preserve and expand Zoroaster’s faith. In the
Sasanian era, Adurbadagan became the religious center of the empire. The chief
Median sacred fire temple of Atur or Adur Gushnasp (Pahlavi) was established
sometime in the Parthian period on a hill near Aturpatakan’s capital Ganzak.
The Sasanians proclaimed Zoroaster’s faith as
an imperial religion and Adurbadagan occupied the role of the empire’s religious
core, holding the temple Adur Gushnasp as the imperial sacred fire of the
highest grade. The Byzantines as well acknowledged the imperial and religious
value of Adurbadagan holding fire Adur Gushnasp. During the Byzantine-Sassanian
War of 602-628 CE, the Byzantine emperor Heraclius, in 623 CE, occupied
Adurbadagan and sacked out fire Adur Gushnasp, aiming to crash the Sassanian
will and power to fight. (Maksymiuk, 2017)
Adur Gushnasp—an Atash Bahram (Parthian:
Ataxsh-i-Wahram (Yamamoto, 1979) or Pahlavi: Adur Bahram—“fires of Victory”,
Zoroastrian name of God of War and Victory) was the Zoroastrian most sacred or
“cathedral” fire of the highest grade established in the late Achaemenid or
Parthian era in Adurbadagan. The temple was linked to the warrior class
(Pahlavi: arteshtar) to which the Sasanian dynasty belonged itself. Since King
Bahram V (r. 420-438 CE), the Sasanian kings after the coronation pilgrimage to the
temple providing royal gifts and celebrate Nowruz (No Ruz). Adur
Gushnasp continued to burn down up to the 11th century (Boyce, 2014).
 |
Figure 3. Ruins of the Sassanids’ most sacred fire temple Adur Gushnasp,
now Takht-e Soleyman, Iranian Azerbaijan |
During
the late Sasanian period, the Sasanian King Kawad I (r. 488-96, 499-531) and his
son Khosrow I Anushirvan (r. 531-579) conducted military and administrative
reforms to establish a quadripartition of the empire. The reform was aimed
improving the empire’s military and defense capabilities to lead a long-lasting
permanent war with Byzantium, as well as to address direct threats from Turks
and Khazars in Caucasia. The reform was designed to strengthen the empire’s
defense following the establishment of four quarters or sides (Pahlavi: kust) reported to the assigned
trustworthy general (Pahlavi: spahbed) for each quarter (Farrokh,
2021; Ghodrat-Dizaji, 2010 ).
King Khosrow I Anushirvan abolished the
one-person command of Eranspahbed (Isbahbadh al-bilad, Artestaran
salar, the office of the marshal or general of all Iranian forces) (Maksymiuk, 2015) and replaced it with four generals (spahbed)
reporting directly to the Shahanshah (king of kings). As a result of the
reform, kust-i Adurbadagan (quadrant or side of Adurbadagan) was established
holding Adurbadagan spahbed (general) and Adurbadagan amargar (financial or
administrative officer) as well. The office of supreme military command
(Isbahbadh) of Azerbaijan, with specially assigned Adurbadagan general, was covered Adurbadagan, Arran (Caucasus Albania) and Armin
(Arminyaya or Armenia) (Maksymiuk, 2015; Farrokh,
2021; Ghodrat-Dizaji, 2011; Gylesen, 2001; Kasumova, 1988) (Figure 4).
 |
| Figure 4. The Sasanian Military Commander seal: Gorgon i Mehran…ud hujadag Xusro wuzurg eran— kust-i Adurbadagan spahbed, (Maksymiuk, 2015). The seal was found in Azargushnasp (Pahlavi: Adur Gusnasp), now Takht-e Soleyman, Iranian Azerbaijan; (M.Khalifa-zadeh translation: Gorgon of Mihran, grandee of Great Khusrow of Iran - region Adurbadagan's [Azerbaijan] general) |
The establishment of kust-i Adurbadagan with a
specially assigned general was designed to improve the empire’s military and
defense capabilities and to strengthen the central power of the Shahanshah.
Moreover, as we believe, the reform aimed to strengthen Zoroastrianism in lands
bordering the Christian Orthodox Byzantium and Turks in the Caucasus. The
Sassanids considered kust-i Adurbadagan the most important quadrant because of
its military potential and geographical location. The kust included the
province of Adurbadagan (a religious center of the empire) and all adjoining
lands in the north and west from the Araz River up to the Khazar lands in the
Caspian Sea.
The establishment of kust-i Adurbadagan
allowed to redesign the Sassanian military architecture in this part of the
empire, projecting Adurbadagan’s structures and functions to the north over the
Araz river up to Caucasia’s Darband fortress as Adurbadagan shahr (country, in
Pahlavi) (Gadjiev & Kasumova, 2006).
The Sasanian reform strategy was pragmatic and
effective. It strengthened the empire’s defense and military capabilities by
incorporating Arranian (Albanian) troops into the Sasanian Imperial army under
the Adurbadagan spahbed’s (general) command. However, the establishment of kust
Adurbadagan had a clear religious function, as mentioned, because the province
Adurbadagan, holding the most sacred fire Adur Gushnasp, was the imperial
center of Zoroastrianism. Thus, projecting Adurbadagan’s military and administrative
functions to the north of the Araz River (Araxes) was of paramount significance
to the Sassanids enforcing both the central Shahanshah’s power and the
Zoroastrian faith in Arran (Albania) which was challenged by the Orthodox
Byzantium (Caucasus Albania was baptized into Nestorian Orthodox Christianity
at the beginning of the 7th CE) (Rapp Jr., 2012) . It increased Zoroastrian gravity and the
importance of Adurbadagan as an imperial religious center, cementing the
Sasanian power and Zoroastrianism (as the unique imperial religion) under
Adurbadagan shahr umbrella in the geographical region where the military and
religious rivaling with the Orthodox Byzantium was in the stages of war (Rapp Jr., 2012).
 |
| Figure 5. Sasanian province Adurbadagan and Arran (Latin: Caucasian Albania) |
The establishment of Adurbadagan’s command
(Isbahbadh) (Maksymiuk, 2015) under a specially assigned general (spahbed)
centralized and expanded military operations up to the Darband fortress on the
frontier with the Turks and Khazars in Caucasia. Despite Darband, at the time,
was within the semi-independent Arran state (Pahlavi: Arranshahr), the
Sasanians maintained military garrisons under the direct supervision of
Adurbadagan’s spahbed. They strongly believed that Arraninan (Albanian) forces
alone were not enough to stop the Turks from penetrating the Darband passage
deep into Iran (Pahlavi: Eranshahr) (Farrokh et al., 2018; Farrokh et al.,
2019) .
The Sassanian Kings (Shahanshah) and Kings of
Arran (Arranshah) improved Darband’s fortifications by constructing double
walls and the Narin Gala citadel on the hill. The fortified defense line was
erected to protect a narrow passage between the Caucasus Mountains and the
Caspian Sea, blocking the invasion of Turks and Khazars.
It is noteworthy that Azerbaijani and
Dagestani scholars translated many Pahlavi inscriptions on the Darband walls.
One of the inscriptions confirms the Darband’s subordination to Adurbadagan’s
tax or revenue officer (Pahlavi: amargar). The Pahlavi wall inscription “en ud
az en abarbar Darius-i Adurbadagan amargar” was translated as: “This and higher
than this made by Dariush, Adurbadagan’s [Azerbaijan] revenue/tax collector” (Gadjiev & Kasumova, 2006) (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Arran's (Caucasian Albania) Darband fortress wall's Pahlavi official inscription. It transcribes as, “ēn ud az ēn ābarbar Daryuš ī Ādurbādagān āmārgar”, and translates as “This and higher than this made by Dariush, tax collector of Adurbadagan [Azerbaijan]” (Kasumova, 1988; Gadjiev & Kasumova, 2006).
The Pahlavi writings on the Darband wall and
the Sasanian garrisons’ location (Gadjiyev, 2003) in Arran’s (Albanian) fortresses of Darband,
Torpakh kala (Sahrestan Yazdegerd), Beshbarmag and in the Gilgilchay Defense
Wall under the Adurbadagan’s general (spahbed) command as well as kust-i
Adurbadagan marzban (administrative office) location in the Adurbadagan
province’s city of Ardebil clearly confirm the projection of Adurbadagan’s
political, military and administrative functions to the north from the Araxes.
Later, historical developments indicate that Arran and Adurbadagan became
interchangeable names in the region (Bosworth, n.d.; ARRAN, n.d.).It is not surprising that Adurbadagan’s name
and functions were projected onto Arran (Albania). The local Arranian
(Albanian) nobility was close to the Sasanian crown and Arranian (Albanian)
troops were integrated into the Sasanian army under command of Adurbadagan
spahbed. Thus, despite that the Caucasus Albania (Arran) was an independent
(from time to time) or semi-independent state, however, the defense was under
Adurbadagan spahbed command who was at the time famous Iranian military and
political hero—spahbed Rostam Farrokhzad of Adurbadagan. General and Prince of
Adurbadagan Rostam Farrokhzad was a member of the Pahlav clan of Ispahbudhan
family (House)—one of the Seven Great (Pahlavi: wuzurgan) Houses of the Sasanian
Empire claiming its descent to the Arsacids of Parthia (Maksymiuk, 2015).
At the same time, the King of Arran Varaz
Grigor (r. 628-637), Zoroastrian name that may have been Gadvsnasp prior to his
second baptizing into dyophysite (Chalcedonian doctrine) (Toumanoff, 1961). Orthodox Nestorian Christianity, was adopted
as the title of Arranshah. He was a member of the wuzurgan Mihran family (a
Pahlav noble-family, separated or branch of the Ispahbudhan House). Moreover,
Arranshah Varaz Grigor was related to the Sasanian Shahanshah Khosrow I
Anushirvan or even “being himself a noble of the family of Ardashir I” and
Prince Javanshir (Pahlavi: Juansher) of the Caucasus Albania (Arran) was a son
of Varaz Grigor. The Pahlav House of Mihran held high ranking positions in the
Sasanian hierarchy and occupied high command over frontline in the north,
leading the negotiations with the Khaqan of Turks (Maksymiuk, 2015).
%20of%20Arran%20(Caucasian%20Albania),%20National%20Museum,%20Baku,%20Azerbaijan.jpg) |
Figure 7. Javanshir (Pahlavi: Juansher), Prince and General (Pahlavi: Spahbed) of Arran (Caucasian Albania),
National Museum of History, Baku, Azerbaijan |
Notably, the famous Sasanian general Rostam
Farrokhzad of Adurbadagan escorted and introduced Prince Javanshir to the last
Sasanian King Yazdgird III (r. 632-651) in Ctesiphon, the Sasanian capital. Prince
Javanshir has occupied a significant place in the history of Azerbaijan and
Iran.
On November 636, in the famous Battle of
al-Qadisiyyah between the Sasanians and Muslim Arabs, Prince Javanshir was the
commander of the Arranian (Albanian) troops, which were part of the Sasanian Imperial
Army under the command of spahbed Rostam Farrokhzad of Adurbadagan.
In 637, Javanshir with 3000 - 4000
troops (Hoyland, 2020), helped arrange King Yazdgird III’s
evacuation from the Sasanian capital Ctesiphon sieged by the Muslims. Later,
Yazdgerd III awarded Javanshir two golden spears and shields and acknowledged
his bravery, awarding a flag—the Standard of Jamshid (Pahlavi: Derafsh-e
Kavian) which was the highest honor for loyalty and bravery in the fight with
the Muslim Arabs. Before the final defeat of the Sassanian army at the Battle
of Nahavand in 642, Javanshir arrived in Adurbadagan. One can assume that he
planned to resume command of the Sasanian Adurbadagan military in the wake of
the death of Rostam, and because of Yazdgerd’s strong will to collect a new
army in Media to fight the Arabs. However, Rostam’s brother Farrukhzad was
assigned as the Adurbadagan spahbed and Javanshir fled back to Arran's (Caucasian Albanian) capital Partaw (now Barda, present-day Azerbaijan).
Azarbaijan/Azerbaijan
Since the Muslim conquest of Iran following
the disintegration of the Sasanian empire and Caucasus Albania, Muslim Arabs
have followed the Sassanian tradition applying Adurbadagan as shahr to both
south and north banks of the Araz river (Ghodrat-Dizaji, 2010). The Muslims followed the Sasanian military
command structure and Sasanian fortifications’ infrastructure designed to
protect the Araxes’s northern lands keeping a garrison in Caucasia’s Darband.
In the meantime, since the Muslim conquest of Iran, the Middle Persian
(Pahlavi) experienced great Arabic influence, and many Pahlavi words evolved
into new form of writing and reading. In fact, Adurbadagan shahr transformed
into Azarbadajan (Arabic pronunciation), and finally, thanks to the
Turkification that followed, evolved into Azarbaijan or Azerbaijan (in
Azerbaijani Turkish).
Since the Sasanian era, the central and
northern and northwestern parts of Iran particularly Adurbadagan, Arran, and
Armin (Greek: Arminiyaya or Armenia), experienced a high degree of Turkification (Aray, 2010). The first Oghuz Turkic tribes (Afshars) began
penetrating Iran as early as the 5th CE. The local population of Sassanian
Adurbadagan shahr (province and kust) was involved into the permanent and
long-lasting (5th-11th centuries) process of Turkification following the
gradual transition from the Adari Iranian language to Azeri Turkic or
Azerbaijani Turkish. Simultaneously, entire Adurbadagan region experienced the
settlement of Turkic tribes fueling the partial or full absorption of the local
population by the Turks.
The Seljuk Turk’s conquering of Iran in the
11th century (Peacock, 2000) became a dominant force creating the ethnic
and cultural foundation of contemporary Azerbaijani Turks or Azerbaijanis
identity on both sides of the Araxes. The Seljuk Turk’s massive influx and
conquering accelerated local Adari language degradation (Kasravi, 1993) and its gradual replacement by Azeri or Azeri
Turkish. This process created a common political, religious, ethnic, cultural,
and linguistic space, or the sole identity of Azerbaijani Turks on both sides
of the Araxes (Alstadt, 1992) .
The conquering of the Seljuk Turks and the
subsequent Turkification fundamentally changed the ethnic composition of Iran.
It created a new political balance within Iran, resulting in the origin of the
entire Azerbaijan and later Azerbaijani Turks’ identity on both banks of the
Araxes, and shifted the nature of Iran into Muslim Shi’a power under the Turkic
dynasties’ rule.
,%20Sultan%20of%20Azerbaijan.%20Emperor%20of%20Persia%20(Iran).jpg) |
| Figure 8. Jahanshah Kara Koyunlu (r. 1438-1567), Sultan of Azerbaijan and Emperor of Persia (Iran) |
Notably, after the defeat of Jahan Shah
(Sultan of Azerbaijan, Emperor of Persia, son of Sultan of Azerbaijan Yusef
Kara of Kara Koyunly, a leader of the Kara Koyunlu Turkic dynasty in Azerbaijan
and Arran) (Uzun Ḥasan & Turkmen Ruler,
n.d.) by Uzun Hasan , the
9th Shahanshah of the Turkic Ak Koyunlu dynasty, in the Battle of Chapakchur
(November 11, 1467), the name Arran was totally abolished (Bosworth, n.d.) as a political term. Uzun Hasan (1453-1478)
proclaimed Azerbaijan’s Tabriz as the capital of the Turkic Ak Koyunlu Empire
and translated the Quran into Turkic.
Next, with the rise of the Safavid Turkic
dynasty in Iran, the forces of Shah Ismail I Safavid (1487-1524, maternal
grandson of Uzun Hasan of Ak Koyunlu) defeated and killed Shirvanshah Farruh
Yassar of Shirvan (Persianized dynasty) in the Battle of Jabani in 1500. The
Shirvanshah Yassar’s defeat accelerated the disintegration of the state of
Shirvanshahs on the northern side of the Araxes, following its absorption by
the Safavid Empire in 1538. The disintegration of Shirvanshahs terminated
Shirvans’ political functioning, cementing entire Azerbaijan under the
Safavids. However, Shirvan and Arran, as geographical terms, have survived
until today. The Turkic Safavids proclaimed Azerbaijan’s Tabriz as the capital
of the empire. The Safavids, following the Sasanian tradition, valued both
parts of Turkic speaking Azerbaijan (Pahlavi: Adurbadagan) as the core of the empire.
 |
| Figure 9. Ismail I (1487-1524), founder of Turkic Safavid dynasty, Shah of Iran, died in Ardebil, Azerbaijan, Iran |
The Savafids appointed Beglarbegis in the
following major provinces: Isfahan, Azerbaijan, Qaradag and Qarabaq. The
administrative reform in the Safavid period confirmed the final political
abolishment of Arran (Caucasus Albania) and Shirvan (state of Shirvanshahs)
to the north of the Araxes as independent or semi-independent entities,
securing them as geographical and historical toponymies till modern time.
Undoubtedly, the Seljuk and later Safavid eras
facilitated the sailing of the northern part of Iran as Azerbaijan to the 18th
century Iran of Qajars, which was the Iranian royal dynasty of Turkic origin
from present-day Azerbaijan. However, several defeats of Qajar Iran by the
Russian empire, following the early 19th century Russo-Persian wars, pushed
them to sign the painful Treaties of Golestan (1813) and Turkmanchay (1828).
Both treaties forced Iran to cede the Qajar’s Caucasian or Azerbaijani khanates
including the Iravan khanate (present-day Armenia), to Imperial Russia (Zardabli, 2014; Ismailov, 2017).
Modern
Azerbaijan: South (Iranian) Azerbaijan and North (Independent Republic of)
Azerbaijan
Many the Imperial Russia’s official documents
indicate the newly gained territories from Qajar Iran as Aderbeijani
(Azerbaijani) khanates. On September 4, 1795, Russia’s Empress Catherin the
Great wrote to General Gudovich: [we] “…have cordially to invite officers of
Aga Mohammad Shah [Qajar] and, if he wants to be acknowledged as a Shah, he
must stop his [military] operations in the region close to the Caspian Sea and
named as the khanates of Darband, Baku, Talish, Shusha and others locating in
Aderbeijan [present-day Azerbaijan]” (Dubrovin, 1871).
 |
| Figure 10. Map of Qajar Iran khanates of northern and southern Azerbaijan |
On January 8, 1804, following the capture of
Ganja fortress (present-day Azerbaijan), the Commander-in-chief of the Russian
forces in Caucasia, General Titsianov, wrote to Russia’s Caucasian Governor
Kasparov: “Thanks to the location of Ganja fortress, which keeps the whole
Aderbeijan [Azerbaijan] in fear, it is the most important purchase for Russia;
and I would like to update you on this event recommending you to inform about
this great victory in all places of the gubernia [region] which is under your control” (Gezalov, n.d.).
Next, British Imperial cables from Persia
confirmed that the ceded Caucasian khanates were Azerbaijan. On June 27, 1864,
British Keith E. Abbot, H.M. Consul-General in Tabriz (Iranian Azerbaijan),
sent a cable to the Foreign Office stating the following: “The country which is
known to the Persians as Azerbaijan is divided between them and Russia… This
area includes the following territorials: …Mohammedian countries of Erivan,
Nakhchevan, Karabagh, Ghenja, Shirwan, Sheky, Shamachy, Bakou, Koobeh, Salian
and a portion of Talish” (present-day Azerbaijan). In the same cable he also
states the following: “The population of Russian Azerbaijan consists of mixed
races, Mohhammedan and Christians, amounting probably to 700,000 to 800,000
souls. Persian Azerbaijan extends southward to the range of mountains known as
the Kaflan Kooh. The country included in these boundaries, and perhaps, a large
part, if not all, of Russian Azerbaijan, is generally recognized as the Media
Atropatena of ancient geography” (Abbott, 1863-1864).
Moreover, Imperial Russia referred to the
local population on both sides of the Araz River Aderbeijanskiye (Azerbaijani)
Tatari (Tatars of Aderbeijan or Azerbaijan) because they spoke, as Russians
believed, in the same or similar language as Russia’s Tatars in Kazan (Velichko, 1904).
As a result of the above-mentioned historical
developments, the phenomenon of two Azerbaijans—South (Iranian) Azerbaijan and
North (Russian) Azerbaijan emerged, creating a new geopolitical landscape in
Caucasia and on both banks of the Araxes in the beginning of the 19th century.
.jpg) |
| Figure 11. Map of modern Azerbaijan: southern (Iranian) and northern (independent Republic of Azerbaijan) |
After the Russian Bolshevik Revolution of
1917, the national Musavat government in Ganja proclaimed independence of
northern Azerbaijan from Imperial Russia on May 28, 1918. Thus, the Azerbaijan
Democratic Republic (ADR) emerged as the first Western-style state in the
Muslim world. The ADR political system was based on Western secular values and
established the National Parliament (Milli Majlis), granting equal voting rights
to women as well as switching from Arabic to the Latin alphabet.
Finally, as a result of the Soviet collapse in
1991, northern or Soviet (Russian) Azerbaijan proclaimed its return to
independence as the Republic of Azerbaijan—a political and historical descent
of the ADR of 1918. On December 25, 1991, Iran recognized the independence of
the Republic of Azerbaijan.
Conclusion
As we have seen, the name Azerbaijan is deeply
rooted in the Achaemenids era and possibly originates from Avestan Adur or
Atash. In the Sassanids period, Azerbaijan (Adurbadagan, in Pahlavi) became the
principal Zoroastrian center of the empire, housing the sacred cathedral fire
of Adur Gushnasp.
In the 5th-6th century, the Sassanids
implemented reforms designed to strengthen the empire’s structure and military
capabilities during the war with the Byzantines and Turks. They pushed forward
the gravity of Adurbadagan, the empire’s Zoroastrian core, into the defense and
consolidation of the Sasanian power in military and politically sensitive
Caucasia to address direct threats from the Byzantium, Khazars and Turks.
The Sassanids reorganized the empire’s architecture,
expanding Adurbadagan’s military and administrative functions to Darband in
Caucasia as under the Adurbadagan shahr or kust umbrella. The newly discovered
Sasanian (kust-i Adurbadagan spahbed) military seals in Takht-e Soleyman
(Iranian Azerbaijan) and Pahlavi writings on Caucasia’s Derbent walls confirm
that Arran and Adurbadagan were interchangeable names on the north bank of the
Araxes since late Antiquity.
After the disintegration of the Arranshahr
(Caucasus Albania) and Shirvanshahs, paralleling the large-scale Turkification
process in the central and northern parts of the Oghuz Turk dynasties’ Iran,
the entities like Arran and Shirvan lost their political essence and were
replaced by Azerbaijan, the Turkified form of Adurbadagan. However, the historical
and geographical functioning of Arran and Shirvan has survived until modern
times.
Historically, as we have seen, the names Arran
and Azerbaijan were interchangeably used to refer to the northern bank of the
Araxes. Thus, Azerbaijan applied for the larger area combining both south and
north sides of the Araxes. The term Arran, however, was used for a narrower
area implying not for the whole territory of the Araxes’ north bank.
Finally, the Turkification process gave birth
to the Azerbaijani Turks identity, holding the Azerbaijani Turkish language as
a key element as well as cementing the whole of Azerbaijan on both sides of the
Araz river. The population on the river’s both banks became the same ethnic
group sharing the common language and religion. However, the historical and
geographical partitioning of Azerbaijan by the Araxes into southern and
northern parts culminated in the present-day geopolitical reality of modern
Azerbaijan, representing the combination of Southern (or Iranian) Azerbaijan, and
Northern—the independent Republic of Azerbaijan. The existence of two
Azerbaijans shapes history and geopolitics between and around Iran and the
independent Republic of Azerbaijan.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest
regarding the publication of this paper.
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